Artificial Intelligence Industry In China

The artificial intelligence industry in the People’s Republic of China is a quickly establishing multi-billion dollar industry. The roots of China’s AI advancement started in the late 1970s following Deng Xiaoping’s financial reforms emphasizing science and innovation as the nation’s primary productive force.

The initial phases of China’s AI development were slow and encountered considerable difficulties due to lack of resources and talent. At the starting China lagged many Western nations in regards to AI advancement. A majority of the research study was led by scientists who had actually gotten college abroad. [1]

Since 2006, the government of the People’s Republic of China has actually progressively developed a nationwide agenda for expert system development and became one of the leading nations in synthetic intelligence research study and advancement. [2] In 2016, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) launched its thirteenth five-year strategy in which it intended to end up being a global AI leader by 2030. [3]

The State Council has a list of “national AI groups” including fifteen China-based companies, including Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, and iFlytek. [citation needed] Each company must lead the advancement of a designated specialized AI sector in China, such as facial recognition, software/hardware, and speech recognition. China’s quick AI development has actually considerably affected Chinese society in numerous locations, including the socio-economic, military, and political spheres. Agriculture, transport, lodging and food services, and manufacturing are the top industries that would be the most impacted by more AI implementation.

The economic sector, university labs, and the military are working collaboratively in lots of aspects as there are couple of present existing limits. [4] In 2021, China released the Data Security Law of individuals’s Republic of China, its first nationwide law dealing with AI-related ethical concerns. In October 2022, the United States federal government revealed a series of export controls and trade limitations planned to limit China’s access to innovative computer chips for AI applications. [5] [6]

Concerns have actually been raised about the effects of the Chinese government’s censorship regime on the advancement of generative expert system and skill acquisition with state of the nation’s demographics. [7] [8]

History

The research and development of expert system in China began in the 1980s, with the announcement by Deng Xiaoping of the significance of science and technology for China’s economic development. [3]

Late 1970s to early 2010s

Artificial intelligence research study and development did not begin until the late 1970s after Deng Xiaoping’s financial reforms. [3] While there was an absence of AI-related research study between the 1950s and 1960s, some scholars believe this is because of the influence of cybernetics from the Soviet Union despite the Sino-Soviet split throughout the late 1950s and early 1960s. [9] In the 1980s, a group of Chinese researchers launched AI research led by Qian Xuesen and Wu Wenjun. [9] However, throughout the time, China’s society still had an usually conservative view towards AI. [9] Early AI advancement in China was hard so China’s government approached these difficulties by sending out Chinese scholars overseas to study AI and more offering government funds for research study tasks. The Chinese Association for Expert System (CAAI) was established in September 1981 and was licensed by the Ministry of Civil Affairs. [10] The very first chairman of the executive committee was Qin Yuanxun, who received a PhD in philosophy from Harvard University. [citation required] In 1987, China’s very first research study publication on expert system was released by Tsinghua University. Beginning in 1993, clever automation and intelligence have actually been part of China’s national innovation plan. [9]

Since the 2000s, the Chinese federal government has actually further broadened its research study and advancement funds for AI and the number of government-sponsored research study tasks has actually dramatically increased. [3] In 2006, China announced a policy concern for the development of expert system, which was consisted of in the National Medium and Long Term Prepare For the Development of Science and Technology (2006-2020), released by the State Council. [2] In the very same year, expert system was also discussed in the eleventh five-year plan. [11]

In 2011, the Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence (AAAI) developed a branch in Beijing, China. [12] At same year, the Wu Wenjun Artificial Intelligence Science and Technology Award was founded in honor of Chinese mathematician Wu Wenjun, and it became the highest award for Chinese achievements in the field of expert system. The very first award event was held on May 14, 2012. [13] In 2013, the International Joint Conferences on Expert System (IJCAI) was held in Beijing, marking the very first time the conference was held in China. This event coincided with the Chinese federal government’s statement of the “Chinese Intelligence Year,” a substantial turning point in China’s advancement of expert system. [12]

Late 2010s to early 2020s

The State Council of China released “A Next Generation Artificial Intelligence Development Plan” (State Council Document [2017] No. 35) on 20 July 2017. In the document, the CCP Central Committee and the State Council urged governing bodies in China to promote the development of artificial intelligence. Specifically, the plan described AI as a tactical technology that has actually become a “focus of international competitors”. [14]:2 The file advised considerable financial investment in a variety of tactical areas connected to AI and called for close cooperation in between the state and private sectors. On the celebration of CCP general secretary Xi Jinping’s speech at the first plenary conference of the Central Military-Civil Fusion Development Committee (CMCFDC), scholars from the National Defense University wrote in the PLA Daily that the “transferability of social resources” between economic and military ends is an important component to being a great power. [15] During the Two Sessions 2017,”artificial intelligence plus” was proposed to be raised to a strategic level. [16] The exact same year experienced the introduction of multiple application-level uses in the medical field according to reports. [17] Furthermore, the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) developed their AI processor chip research laboratory in Nanjing, and presented their first AI expertise chip, Cambrian. [citation required]

In 2018, Xinhua News Agency, in partnership with Tencent’s subsidiary Sogou, introduced its very first synthetic intelligence-generated news anchor. [18] [19] [20]

In 2018, the State Council allocated $2.1 billion for an AI commercial park in Mentougou district. [21] In order to accomplish this the State Council stated the need for massive skill acquisition, theoretical and useful advancements, in addition to public and private financial investments. [14] A few of the stated inspirations that the State Council gave for pursuing its AI method consist of the capacity of artificial intelligence for commercial transformation, better social governance and keeping social stability. [14] Since the end of 2020, Shanghai’s Pudong District had 600 AI business across fundamental, technical, and application layers, with related industries valued at around 91 billion yuan. [22]

In 2019, the application of expert system expanded to various fields such as quantum physics, geography, and medical research study. With the introduction of big language models (LLMs), at the beginning of 2020, Chinese researchers started establishing their own LLMs. One such example is the multimodal big design called ‘Zidongtaichu.’ [23]

The Beijing Academy of Expert system introduced China’s first big scale pre-trained language model in 2022. [24] [25]:283

In November 2022, the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC), Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, and the Ministry of Public Security jointly provided the regulations worrying deepfakes, which ended up being effective in January 2023. [26]

In July 2023, Huawei released its variation 3.0 of its Pangu LLM. [27]

In July 2023, China launched its Interim Measures for the Administration of Generative Expert System Services. [28]:96 A draft proposition on standard generative AI services security requirements, consisting of specs for information collection and model training was released in October 2023. [28]:96

Also in October 2023, the Chinese federal government launched its Global AI Governance Initiative, which frames its AI policy as part of a Neighborhood of Common Destiny and aims to construct AI policy discussion with establishing nations. [29] [28]:93 The Initiative has revealed concern over AI safety dangers, consisting of abuse of data or using AI by terrorists. [28]:93

In 2024, Spamouflage, an online disinformation and propaganda campaign of the Ministry of Public Security, began using news anchors created with generative expert system to provide fake news clips. [18]

In March 2024, Premier Li Qiang released the AI+ Initiative, which plans to incorporate AI into China’s genuine economy. [28]:95

In May 2024, the Cyberspace Administration of China announced that it rolled out a large language model trained on Xi Jinping Thought. [30]

According to the 2024 report from the International Data Corporation (IDC), Baidu AI Cloud holds China’s biggest LLM market show 19.9 percent and US$ 49 million in income over the last year. This was followed by SenseTime, with 16 percent market share, and by Zhipu AI, as the third largest. The 4th and fifth biggest were Baichuan and the Hong-Kong listed AI company 4Paradigm respectively. [31] Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax were applauded by financiers as China’s brand-new “AI Tigers”. [32] In April 2024, 117 generative AI models had actually been authorized by the Chinese government. [33]

As of 2024, numerous Chinese innovation firms such as Zhipu AI and Bytedance have actually launched AI video-generation tools to rival OpenAI’s Sora. [34]

Chronology of significant AI-related policies

Ministry of Science and Technology; Ministry of Industry and Infotech; the Central Leading Group for Cyberspace Affairs

National Development and Reform Commission; Ministry of Science and Technology Ministry of Industry and Information Technology

Government objectives

According to a February 2019 publication by the Center for a Brand-new American Security, CCP general secretary Xi Jinping – believes that being at the leading edge of AI innovation will be vital to the future of worldwide military and economic power competitors. [35] By 2025, the State Council intends for China to make fundamental contributions to standard AI theory and to solidify its place as a worldwide leader in AI research study. Further, the State Council goes for AI to become “the primary driving force for China’s industrial updating and economic transformation” by this time. [14] By 2030, the State Council aims to have China be the international leader in the advancement of synthetic intelligence theory and innovation. The State Council claims that China will have developed a “mature new-generation AI theory and innovation system.” [14]

According to academics Karen M. Sutter and Zachary Arnold, the Chinese federal government “looks for to combine state preparation and control while some operational versatility for companies. In this context, China’s AI firms are hybrid gamers. The state guides their activity, funds, and shields them from foreign competition through domestic market protections, developing uneven benefits as they broaden offshore.” [36]

The CCP’s fourteenth five-year plan reaffirmed AI as a top research top priority and ranks AI initially amongst “frontier markets” that the aims to concentrate on through 2035. [3] The AI industry is a tactical sector frequently supported by China’s government guidance funds. [37]:167

Research and development

Chinese public AI financing generally concentrated on advanced and applied research. [38] The federal government funding likewise supported multiple AI R&D in the economic sector through venture capitals that are backed by the state. [38] Much analytic company research showed that, while China is enormously buying all aspects of AI development, facial acknowledgment, biotechnology, quantum computing, medical intelligence, and autonomous automobiles are AI sectors with the most attention and funding. [39]

According to nationwide guidance on developing China’s modern commercial advancement zones by the Ministry of Science and Technology, there are fourteen cities and one county picked as a speculative development zone. [40] Zhejiang and Guangdong provinces have the most AI development in speculative areas. However, the focus of AI R&D differed depending on cities and regional industrial advancement and community. For example, Suzhou, a city with a longstanding strong production market, heavily concentrates on automation and AI infrastructure while Wuhan focuses more on AI applications and the education sector. [40] In connection with universities, tech firms, and nationwide ministries, Shenzhen and Hangzhou each co-founded generative AI labs. [25]:282

In 2016 and 2017, Chinese groups won the top prize at the Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge, an international competitors for computer system vision systems. [41] Much of these systems are now being incorporated into China’s domestic security network. [42]

Interdisciplinary collaborations play an important function in China’s AI R&D, consisting of academic-corporate cooperation, public-private cooperations, and worldwide partnerships and tasks with corporate-government collaborations are the most typical. [1] China ranked in the top 3 around the world following the United States and the European Union for the total variety of peer-reviewed AI publications that are produced under a corporate-academic collaboration between 2015 and 2019. [43] Besides, according to an AI index report, China exceeded the U.S. in 2020 in the overall variety of global AI-related journal citations. [43] In terms of AI-related R&D, China-based peer-reviewed AI papers are generally sponsored by the government. In May 2021, China’s Beijing Academy of Expert system launched the world’s largest pre-trained language design (WuDao). [44]

Since 2023, 47% of the world’s leading AI scientists had actually completed their undergraduate studies in China. [28]:101

According to scholastic Angela Huyue Zhang, publishing in 2024, while the Chinese federal government has actually been proactive in managing AI services and enforcing obligations on AI companies, the total approach to its policy is loose and demonstrates a pro-growth policy beneficial to China’s AI industry. [28]:96 In July 2024, the government opened its first algorithm registration center in Beijing. [45]

Population

China’s big population generates a massive quantity of available data for business and scientists, which offers an essential benefit in the race of big information. As of 2024 [update], China has the world’s largest variety of web users, generating substantial quantities of information for machine learning and AI applications. [46]:18

Facial recognition

Facial recognition is among the most commonly utilized AI applications in China. Collecting these large quantities of data from its citizens assists additional train and expand AI abilities. China’s market is not only favorable and important for corporations to additional AI R&D however also provides tremendous economic potential bring in both global and domestic companies to sign up with the AI market. The extreme development of the information and communication innovation (ICT) industry and AI chipsets in current years are 2 examples of this. [47] China has actually ended up being the world’s biggest exporter of facial recognition technology, according to a January 2023 Wired report. [48]

Censorship and material controls

In April 2023, [49] the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC) provided draft measures stating that tech business will be bound to guarantee AI-generated content maintains the ideology of the CCP consisting of Core Socialist Values, prevents discrimination, appreciates copyright rights, and safeguards user data. [50] [25]:278 Under these draft measures, business bear legal obligation for training data and content produced through their platforms. [25]:278 In October 2023, the Chinese government mandated that generative artificial intelligence-produced material may not “prompt subversion of state power or the toppling of the socialist system.” [51] Before launching a big language design to the general public, business need to look for approval from the CAC to certify that the model refuses to answer certain questions relating to political ideology and criticism of the CCP. [8] [52] Questions related to politically delicate subjects such as the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre or contrasts in between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh should be declined. [52]

In 2023, in-country gain access to was obstructed to Hugging Face, a company that maintains libraries including training information sets frequently utilized for large language models. [8] A subsidiary of individuals’s Daily, the official paper of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, offers local companies with training information that CCP leaders consider acceptable. [8] In 2024, individuals’s Daily released a LLM-based tool called Easy Write. [53]

Microsoft has warned that the Chinese government uses generative expert system to interfere in foreign elections by spreading out disinformation and provoking discussions on dissentious political concerns. [54] [55] [56]

The Chinese expert system design DeepSeek has been reported to refuse to respond to questions associating with aspects of the 1989 Tiananmen Square demonstrations and massacre, persecution of Uyghurs, contrasts between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh or human rights in China. [57] [58] [59]

Impact

Economic effect

Most firms [who?] hold positive views about AI’s financial effect on China’s long-lasting financial development. In the past, standard markets in China have struggled with the boost in labor costs due to the growing aging population in China and the low birth rate. With the deployment of AI, functional expenses are expected to decrease while an increase in efficiency generates earnings development. [60] Some highlight the value of a clear policy and governmental support in order to get rid of adoption barriers including costs and absence of effectively trained technical talents and AI awareness. [61] However, there are issues about China’s deepening income inequality and the ever-expanding imbalanced labor market in China. Low- and medium-income employees may be the most adversely impacted by China’s AI advancement because of rising needs for workers with sophisticated skills. [61] Furthermore, China’s financial development may be disproportionately divided as a majority of AI-related industrial development is concentrated in coastal areas instead of inland. [61]

A prominent decision by the Beijing Internet Court has ruled that AI-generated content is entitled to copyright defense. [28]:98

Military effect

China looks for to construct a “world-class” military by “intelligentization” with a specific concentrate on making use of unmanned weapons and expert system. [62] [63] It is looking into numerous kinds of air, land, sea, and undersea self-governing lorries. In the spring of 2017, a civilian Chinese university with ties to the military showed an AI-enabled swarm of 1,000 unoccupied aerial cars at an airshow. A media report released later on revealed a computer system simulation of a similar swarm formation finding and damaging a missile launcher. [4]:23 Open-source publications suggested that China is also establishing a suite of AI tools for cyber operations. [64] [4]:27 Chinese advancement of military AI is largely affected by China’s observation of U.S. prepare for defense innovation and fears of a widening “generational gap” in contrast to the U.S. military. Similar to U.S. military principles, China intends to use AI for making use of large chests of intelligence, producing a typical operating image, and accelerating battleground decision-making. [64] [4]:12 -14 The Chinese Multi-Domain Precision Warfare (MDPW) is thought about China’s action to the U.S. Joint All-Domain Command and Control (JADC2) technique, which looks for to incorporate sensing units and weapons with AI and an energetic network. [65] [66]

Twelve classifications of military applications of AI have been identified: UAVs, USVs, UUVs, UGVs, intelligent munitions, smart satellites, ISR (Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance) software application, automated cyber defense software application, automated cyberattack software, choice assistance, software, automated missile launch software application, and cognitive electronic warfare software. [67]

China’s management of its AI community contrasts with that of the United States. [4]:6 In basic, couple of limits exist in between Chinese business business, university research labs, the military, and the central government. As an outcome, the Chinese government has a direct methods of assisting AI development top priorities and accessing innovation that was seemingly established for civilian functions. To even more strengthen these ties the Chinese government developed a Military-Civil Fusion Development Commission which is meant to speed the transfer of AI innovation from business companies and research study institutions to the military in January 2017. [2] [4]:19 In addition, the Chinese federal government is leveraging both lower barriers to data collection and lower expenses of data identifying to produce the big databases on which AI systems train. [68] According to one quote, China is on track to possess 20% of the world’s share of information by 2020, with the possible to have more than 30% by 2030. [64] [4]:12

China’s centrally directed effort is purchasing the U.S. AI market, in companies working on militarily relevant AI applications, potentially granting it lawful access to U.S. technology and intellectual home. [69] Chinese venture capital financial investment in U.S. AI companies in between 2010 and 2017 amounted to an estimated $1.3 billion. [70] [64] In September 2022, the U.S. Biden administration issued an executive order to prevent foreign financial investments, “especially those from competitor or adversarial countries,” from investing in U.S. technology firms, due to U.S. nationwide security issues. [71] [72] The order covers fields of U.S. technologies in which Chinese federal government has actually been investing, including “microelectronics, artificial intelligence, biotechnology and biomanufacturing, quantum computing, [and] innovative tidy energy.” [71] [72]

In 2024, scientists from the People’s Liberation Army Academy of Military Sciences were reported to have actually established a military tool utilizing Llama, which Meta Platforms said was unapproved due to its design usage restriction for military functions. [73] [74]

Academia

Although in 2004, Peking University presented the first academic course on AI which led other Chinese universities to adopt AI as a discipline, specifically given that China deals with difficulties in recruiting and maintaining AI engineers and researchers. [21] Over half of the information scientists in the United States have been operating in the field for over 10 years, while approximately the same percentage of data researchers in China have less than 5 years of experience. As of 2017, less than 30 Chinese Universities produce AI-focused experts and research products. [61]:8 Although China exceeded the United States in the variety of research study documents produced from 2011 to 2015, the quality of its released documents, as evaluated by peer citations, ranked 34th internationally. [75] China particularly want to resolve military applications and so the Beijing Institute of Technology, among China’s premier institutes for weapons research, recently established the first kids’s academic program in military AI worldwide. [76]

In 2019, 34% of Chinese students studying in the AI field remained in China for work. [77] According to a database preserved by an American thinktank, the percentage increased to 58% in 2022. [77]

Ethical concerns

For the previous years, there are discussions about AI security and ethical issues in both private and public sectors. In 2021, China’s Ministry of Science and Technology published the first national ethical guideline, ‘the New Generation of Expert System Ethics Code’ on the subject of AI with particular emphasis on user defense, information privacy, and security. [78] This file acknowledges the power of AI and fast innovation adjustment by the huge corporations for user engagements. The South China Morning Post reported that humans will stay in complete decision-making power and rights to opt-in/-out. [78] Before this, the Beijing Academy of Expert system released the Beijing AI concepts calling for important requirements in long-lasting research study and planning of AI ethical principles. [79]

Data security has been the most typical subject in AI ethical discussion worldwide, and many national governments have actually developed legislation resolving data privacy and security. The Cybersecurity Law of the People’s Republic of China was enacted in 2017 aiming to resolve brand-new difficulties raised by AI advancement. [80] [initial research?] In 2021, China’s brand-new Data Security Law (DSL) was passed by the PRC congress, establishing a regulative structure categorizing all sort of data collection and storage in China. [81] This means all tech companies in China are required to classify their data into classifications listed in Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) and follow specific standards on how to govern and handle information transfers to other parties. [81]

Judicial system

In 2019, the city of Hangzhou established a pilot program synthetic intelligence-based Internet Court to adjudicate disputes connected to ecommerce and internet-related intellectual home claims. [82]:124 Parties appear before the court through videoconference and AI examines the evidence provided and applies pertinent legal requirements. [82]:124

Because some questionable cases that drew public criticism for their low punishments have actually been withdrawn from China Judgments Online, there are issues about whether AI based upon fragmented judicial information can reach objective choices. [83] Zhang Linghan, professor of law at the China University of Government and Law, composes that AI-technology companies might deteriorate judicial power. [84] Some scholars argued that “increasing celebration management, political oversight, and minimizing the discretionary space of judges are deliberate goals of SCR [clever court reform]” [85]

Leading business

Leading AI-centric companies and start-ups consist of Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, 4Paradigm and Yitu Technology. [86] Chinese AI companies iFlytek, SenseTime, Cloudwalk and DJI have received attention for facial acknowledgment, sound recognition and drone innovations. [87]

China’s government takes a market-oriented method to AI, and has actually looked for to encourage private tech business in establishing AI. [25]:281 In 2018, it designated Baidu, Alibaba, iFlytek, Tencent, and SenseTime as “AI champs”. [25]:281

In 2023, Tencent debuted its large language model Hunyuan for enterprise usage on Tencent Cloud. [88]

New leading AI startups include Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax which were praised by financiers as China’s new “AI Tigers” in 2024. [32] 01. AI has actually likewise been touted as a leading startup. [89]

Assessment

Academic Jinghan Zeng argued the Chinese government’s commitment to worldwide AI management and technological competitors was driven by its previous underperformance in innovation which was seen by the CCP as a part of the century of embarrassment. [90] According to Zeng, there are historically embedded reasons for China’s anxiety towards securing a worldwide technological supremacy – China missed out on both industrial transformations, the one beginning in Britain in the mid-18th century, and the one that came from America in the late-19th century. [90] Therefore, China’s federal government desires to take benefit of the technological revolution in today’s world led by digital innovation including AI to resume China’s “rightful” place and to pursue the national restoration proposed by Xi Jinping. [90]

A short article released by the Center for a New American Security concluded that “Chinese government authorities showed incredibly eager understanding of the issues surrounding AI and international security. This consists of knowledge of the U.S. AI policy discussions,” and advised that “the U.S. policymaking community to likewise prioritize cultivating proficiency and understanding of AI advancements in China” and “financing, focus, and a willingness amongst U.S. policymakers to drive large-scale required change.” [35] A short article in the MIT Technology Review likewise concluded: “China may have exceptional resources and massive untapped potential, but the West has world-leading proficiency and a strong research study culture. Instead of fret about China’s development, it would be smart for Western nations to concentrate on their existing strengths, investing greatly in research and education. ” [91]

The Chinese government’s censorship routine has actually stunted the development of generative synthetic intelligence [7] [8]

In a 2021 text, the Research Centre for a Holistic Approach to National Security at the China Institutes of Contemporary International Relations composed that the development of AI creates obstacles for holistic nationwide security, consisting of the dangers that AI will increase social tensions or have destabilizing results on global relations. [28]:49

Writing from a Chinese Marxist view, academics including Gao Qiqi and Pan Enrong contend that capitalist application of AI will result in greater injustice of workers and more serious social problems. [28]:90 Gao mentions how the advancement of AI has actually increased the power of platform business like Meta, Twitter, and Alphabet, resulting in greater capital build-up and political power in less economic stars. [28]:90 According to Gao, the state must be the primary responsible star in the area of generative AI (creating new content like music or video). [28]:92 Gao composes that military use of AI threats intensifying military competitors in between countries and that the effect of AI in military matters will not be limited to one nation however will have spillover impacts. [28]:91

Dialogues between Chinese and Western AI specialists about the existential risk from expert system have occurred. [92]

Public polling

The Chinese public is generally optimistic concerning AI. [25]:283 [28]:101 A 2021 research study conducted across 28 countries discovered that 78% of the Chinese public thinks the benefits of AI outweigh the dangers, the highest of any nation in the study. [25]:283 In 2024, a survey of elite Chinese college student discovered that 80% agreed or strongly agreed that AI will do more great than damage for society, and 31% thought it needs to be managed by the government. [93]

Human rights

The extensively used AI facial acknowledgment has actually raised concerns. [94] According to The New York City Times, release of AI facial acknowledgment technology in the Xinjiang region to find Uyghurs is “the very first known example of a government intentionally utilizing artificial intelligence for racial profiling,” [95] which is stated to be “one of the most striking examples of digital authoritarianism.” [96] Researchers have discovered that in China, areas experiencing greater rates of unrest are related to increased state acquisition of AI facial recognition innovation, specifically by regional community authorities departments. [97] [98]

Expert system.
Artificial intelligence arms race
China Brain Project
Fifth generation computer
List of expert system business
Regulation of expert system

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Further reading

Hannas, William C.; Chang, Huey-Meei, eds. (29 July 2022). Chinese Power and Artificial Intelligence: Perspectives and Challenges (1st ed.). London: Routledge.